Debt Crisis in the Euro-zone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Debt Crisis in the Euro-zone - Essay Example Nations such as Greece, Ireland and Portugal, who are currently way deep recession, meet the definition of a full-blown economic depression (Schuman, 2011). The depreciation of the euro relative to the home currency will make Euro-zone exports cheaper in global markets; this as a result would increase the competitive pressure in the home country. At the same time, it was observed in the last quarter of 2011, manufacturing industry weakened from China to Europe and euro region’s debt crisis is expected to darken the outlook of the global economy. Before going any further, it would be interesting to understand why it is necessary and helpful for countries to borrow and then to accumulate debt. Foreign borrowing is seen by governments as an addition to domestic saving, this borrowing helps in connecting to an investment saving gap and thus this leads to gain quicker growth, this is usually considered as final and vital economic goal for any country. The Mundell-Fleming model amal gamates the foreign finance and trade into a macro-economic theory. The theory came into evolution in the early 1960s and was introduced by the great Canadian Economist and the winner of 1999 Nobel Price Award, Robert Mundell. He was also heavily helped and facilitated by the British economist, J. Marcus Fleming. During the time period when this theory came into existence, both these economists were a part of the research team within the famous International Monetary Fund. While carrying out their research towards the Mundell-Fleming model, they enhanced the conventional Keynesian model in to such an open economy system whereby the capital and the goods market were internationally incorporated (Hailu et al, 2011). The Mundell-Fleming model is of the view that under a flexible exchange rate management system, the fiscal policy has almost none or little effect over the final yield or output whilst the monetary system is hugely valuable. This situation shows an entire mirror image when a fixed exchange rate is adopted i.e. the fiscal policy becomes effective rather than the monetary policy. The hypothesis that international money markets are completely amalgamated plays an important role in formulating these results. One of the major suppositions that the Mundell-Fleming model makes is that the economy under consideration is an open economy whereby the financial capital has an ideal mobility. The Mundell-Fleming model and the traditional IS-LM model are similar to each other when expressing the market for goods and services. One of the differences is that the Mundell-Fleming model includes a fresh terminology for net exports; this can be portrayed with the following equation: Y = C(Y -T) + I (r) + G + NX (E) Whereby; Y= The aggregate/cumulative income C= Consumption, I= Investment G= Government purchases (Y – T)= Disposable Income r = Interest rate NX = Net Exports E= Exchange Rate According to this equation, the total aggregate income of any country is th e totting up of all these different factors. The consumption factor within the equation is positively dependent upon the disposable income whilst the investments and the net exports are negatively dependent upon the real interest and exchange rates respectively (Serrano et al, n.d.). The Mundell-Fleming model provides an understanding that clearly helps in analysing the consequences of adopting

Summary of the article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary of the article - Essay Example for existing depreciation methods as impairment would occur if they violate the requirement of depreciation charges while reflecting the use of the asset in revenue-generating process. The article then proposes an axiomatic system that is compatible with the recent accounting standards. This system shall also test the compatibility of the any depreciation method with the changed requirements for accounting. The axiomatic system proposed has three requirements. Firstly, the periodic depreciation charge has to be non-negative. Secondly, the depreciation charge is not greater than the cash flow for that period. And lastly, the periodic depreciation charge maintains the essential aspect of matching principle between depreciation and cash flow. The article then highlights how current depreciation methods violate the above axiomatic system. The focus of the article then shifts to proportional depreciation method which directly depends on the cash flow of the asset. Two requirements of consistency are then proposed, namely, Partition Consistency and Dynamic Consistency. The first requirement assures that there is consistency between depreciation charges throughout any sub-period division throughout an asset’s life. The second requirement demands that if there is no change in the economic fundamentals during the asset’s useful life, then the original computation of the depreciation charges will sustain. A detailed description of the axiomatic system is given along with its implications. The three axioms are formulated, their definitions are provided while their respective proofs are provided in the appendix. The proportional depreciation system is described and proof is provided about it sustaining the three axioms. The article then enters into the phase of defining partition consistency and dynamic consistency. They are linked to the axioms and a very solid relationship is established between these two consistencies and proportional depreciation method. The

The Internal And External Validity And Reliability Psychology Essay

The Internal And External Validity And Reliability Psychology Essay This chapter contains a description of the research methodology proposed for this study, including a restatement of the purpose and research questions. The chapter is organized with categories pertaining to the instrumentation, data collection, research methodology, ethical concerns, and explanation of the statistical procedures used for a descriptive quantitative analysis. The purpose of this study is to examine the opinions and attitudes of the Colorado Mental Health Institutes clinical staff regarding the perceived value of the Crisis Prevention Institutes Nonviolent Crisis Intervention Program used to manage violence in the hospitals inpatient treatment settings. This will be accomplished through the use of a survey designed to assess the perceptions of those charged with providing direct care to the mentally ill population of the Institute regarding the effectiveness of the Crisis Prevention Institutes Nonviolent Crisis Intervention Program to prevent and manage violent behavior . Designing an attitudinal survey in order to quantify results can be a challenging task depending on what is being measured and selecting the appropriate assessment methodology. Most forms of assessment test large sample groups, with divergent sub-groups to contrast and compare in terms of scores (Thorndike Thorndike-Christ, 2009). The subject areas in the survey that will be used for this assessment are of a non-comparative nature, meaning that each item is scaled independently of the others as opposed to comparing them to each other. The numbers used in the scale will indicate the relative position of items, but not the magnitude of difference between them. With respect to these parameters and limitations, this study will present the survey scores of the participants, along with calculations as to their range and central tendency. In addition, inferences will be made as to factors that may have influenced the scoring choices made by the respondents. In the fields related to education and social science, research exploring the attitudes, feelings, and lived experiences of the respondents is often conducted through the use of a survey methodology. Research data gathered in this manner can be categorized into four types measuring scales containing different information that determines the method of statistical analysis (Stevens, 1946). Perhaps the simplest though least statistically descriptive measurement scale is termed a nominal scale, in which a name or number is assigned to the value of the data for identifying purposes. Numbers used in a nominal scale have no particular order, magnitude, or significance in value other than for the purpose of identification, and though this scale of measurement yields little in terms of detailed statistical information, there is less potential for error secondary to the simplicity its structure (Stevens, 1946). In contrast, an ordinal scale is a level of measurement that does provide a differentiation and value in the numerical assignment (Stevens, 1946). Values can be determined by the ranking the assigned numbers in either an increasing or decreasing fashion, dependent on the design and purpose of the research instrument. An example of this would be 5 point ordinal scale used for an assessment of pain utilizing an increasing design. The number 1 would indicate the least amount of pain experienced, with the number 5 ascribed to the highest level of pain experienced; and the numbers in between reflecting differences in experiential magnitude. Although in this example the level of pain would be indicated by the numerical assignment, the difference in the numbers in the ranking would not necessarily be equal or precise, and the differences between any two rating numbers would not indicate a specific interval. Thus, an ordinal scale may be considered to be a more sophisticated method for measu rement than a nominal scale, yet be less precise for in providing specific information in terms of magnitude than with other levels of measurement such as interval or ratio scales. Researchers seeking this type of information might use an interval scale, as there are equal spaces between any two values which will provide more specific data than with a nominal or ordinal scale. As the distance between any two positions on an interval scale is of a known size, this method allows for the use of arithmetic operations, and the scale might be used for measurements pertaining to temperature, dollars, out to for, nor anything in which there is a direct measurable quantity with equality in units (Stevens, 1946). As with temperature, zero does not represent the absolute lowest value, and therefore inferences regarding the ratios of data cannot be made as an interval scale does not have a true value of zero (Thorndike Thorndike-Christ, 2009). A level of measurement that does possess a true value of zero and has the property of ratios has some similarities to an interval scale, and is called a ratio scale. The corresponding ratios on the scale have the same meaning and th e value of zero absolute, as in a measurement of height and weight (Thorndike Thorndike-Christ, 2009). The ratio scale can provide more specific information than the other levels of measurement; however, its complexity can be a factor in terms of the potential for research error. All four of these levels of measurement can be used singly and at times conjunctively in the design of a rating scale instrument dependent on the type of research being conducted. Therefore, the selection of a particular level of measurement is a fundamental concern for the researcher, as the success or failure of a research endeavor may lie in making an appropriate choice, as the subsequent types statistical analyses for each are varied and differentiated. Likert and Likert-Type Rating Scales The level of measurement most appropriate for this quantitative statistical study is an ordinal scale. As the focus of this study is on staff members attitudes, trying to render subjective and what might be considered qualitative data into quantitative measurements requires a method for categorizing responses. At the same time, care must be given in considering whether a particular scale item can be measured in terms of the distances between any two numbers in the rating scale. In 1932 Rensis Likert created and developed a methodology often used to assess feelings, attitudes, and opinions by providing a rating scale structure that addressed this concern (Likert, 1932). This method has widely utilized and adapted in many venues including education, social science, marketing, and a variety of other applications with empirical research evidence that confirms its reliability and validity (Abdel-Khalek, 1998; Chow Winzer, 1992; Maurer Andrews, 2000). This evidence further suggests that r ating bias is reduced and the reliability of the rating is highest when a 5 or 7 point or higher rating scale is used (Stennet, 2002). As a result, a typical Likert scale typically has 5 to 7 categories with 3 or 4 point scales often considered too few, particularly when parametric statistical methods are applied (Garson, 2002). The categories in a 5-point Likert scale is often coded as 1- Strongly Disagree, 2 Disagree, 3 -Neutral, 4 Agree, and 5 Strongly Agree, with percentage and nonparametric statistics used for analysis. The simplest form of Likert scale is analyzed in a summative manner; with the mean value of a Likert-item found by adding the number of responses to a Likert-item and dividing it by the number of points used for the rating scale. Whether or not Likert scales can or should be analyzed using parametric versus nonparametric tests is a source of ongoing controversy within the statistical community (Acock Martin, 1974). Efforts to quantify responses using paramet ric tests have led to an adaptation in scale design from the classic Likert model, to what is termed a Likert-type scale (Clason Dormody, 1994). A Likert-type scale differs from a Likert scale in the statement questions being singular in the response alternatives, allowing for the data to be treated as interval scale data for parametric statistical analysis (Brown, 2000; Clason Dormody, 1994; Cliff, 1984; Hodgson, 2003). With this approach, the mean score of Likert-type data from each question or statement could be compared using a t -test, though factors related to data distribution, sample size, and number of rating choices would need to be considered (Clason Dormody, 1994). This translation of ordinal rating scale data into that of an interval scale for the use of parametric statistical methods underscores the controversy identified by Acock Martin, 1974). As previously described in the levels of measurement, ordinal scales are ranked with no specific measurable difference or distance between the numerical categories, and statistical calculations used to determine the mean, standard deviation, and patterns of correlatio n may result in inaccurate research findings (Harwell Gatti, 2001; Miller, 1998). In the classic Likert scale design numbers to provide order and ranking, but since the actual distance and origin between the numbers is unknown, then it cannot be scored in an additive manner save to indicate the central tendency and range of the responses (Dawes, 2008). This supports the contention that non-parametric test should be used for a quantitative analysis, though it could be argued there are methods that would be more statistically accurate and valid, such as ordinal regression techniques (McCullagh, 1980). Furthermore, the calculation of the mean scores for the ordinal data would need to be established in order to be statistically valid in a analysis using parametric tests (Trochim, 2006), whereas those arguing against this approach contend that the median but not the mean can serve as a measure of central tendency (Trochim, 2006). For this study, the calculations for will exclude the mea n, though the mode, median, and range of the score distribution will be presented. Data Analysis A descriptive quantitative research methodology will be used for this study through the use of a survey that was designed to collect data from the direct care providers at the Colorado Mental Health Institute. A survey methodology is often used for data collection from a specific population or from a sample of the population (Robson, 1993). Within the realm of psychology, surveys are used for gathering data about individuals, groups and organizations, and larger social networks (Rossi, Wright, and Anderson, 1983). Most Americans have participated in some form of survey in an either online or in a paper format whether in an educational, social science, political, or marketing research context. Many organizations have employees participate in satisfaction surveys, and surveys in general have become a sort of social barometer for monitoring the publics attitudes and opinions. Often surveys target a specific population, with a sample survey focusing on subgroups determined by a variety o f factors such as gender, race, geography, political beliefs etc. dependent on the nature and focus of the subject areas studied (Rossi, Wright and Anderson, 1983). The advantages and strengths of using a survey methodology for gathering information are that they can be of a qualitative or quantitative design, and be easily administered to gather information quickly and inexpensively (Leary , 1995). In the past, this was frequently accomplished through the use of paper and mailed surveys, with the latter method used particularly when large populations were being surveyed. With advances in communication and digital technology, surveys can be conduct via electronic formats as varied as those associated with phones and computers. Other frequently used research methodologies such as personal interviews can be more time and cost intensive than with the use of a survey instrument, and anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents can be more difficult to control. These factors strongly influenced the researchers choice of a descriptive research methodology utilizing a survey instrument to assess the Colorado Mental Health institutes clinical employ ees attitudes, feelings, and lived experiences related to the crisis intervention training program the organization has utilized for 25 years. Few attitudinal surveys have been conducted regarding this specific subject area, and a review of the literature did not reveal any studies concerning the long-term impact of this type of training on the culture of a mental health organization. The Colorado Mental Health Institutes 2008 Safety Survey Another key factor that sponsored this researchers interest in designing and administering an attitudinal survey was a review of a safety survey conducted at the Colorado Mental Health Institute in 2008. The Colorado Mental Health Institute currently uses a survey methodology for exit interviews with clients that are discharging from the facility, as well as surveys designed to gauge employees job satisfaction. The Institute has only conducted one survey that concerned the subject area of crisis intervention training being focused on in the proposed study for this dissertation. The purpose of the survey was stated thusly: In light of the high number of patient to staff assaults in fiscal year 07-08, the hospital focused the annual Failure Mode Effects and Analysis on the Management of Assaultive Patients, and assembled a workgroup to perform the analysis. The hospital director suggested a staff survey specific to perceptions of safety to be done as part of the work on reducing assaul ts (Colorado Mental Health Institute Safety Survey, 2008). Although the survey provided some interesting results, there was no data regarding the internal and validity of the survey instrument. Thus, the results are highly questionable in terms of these factors, and the survey cannot be considered quantitatively accurate, though it can provide useful information for developing a more scientifically accurate instrument by analyzing its improper design. It is important to note that in 2008 the Colorado Mental Health Institute had eight treatment units as opposed to the four that currently provide service for adults, with the closure of geriatric, adolescent, and children services in recent years. 2008 Survey Methodology There were approximately 240 surveys distributed to the direct care staff members, with 224 surveys submitted by participants indicating a 93% return rate. The survey focused on the aggregated responses of nurses, Mental Health Clinicians, and Public Safety Officers (security) as the providers with the most direct care contact. The survey used a 5 point Likert scale shown below: Table 1. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree The safety survey was comprised of four questions: I feel safe working with patients on my unit. I feel safe when I float to another unit. Crisis management training is useful/helpful in preparing me to deal effectively with agitated and escalated patients. I feel adequately trained to deal with assaultive patients. There was one open-ended question, asking What further training do you feel would be beneficial to prepare you to work with the various patient populations at the Colorado Mental Health Institute and the assault risks they present? Table 2. Colorado Mental Health Institute Safety Survey, 2008. The survey presented tables illustrating findings specific to each treatment unit similar to the one above. They are not included in this study for the sake of brevity, however, it is important to note that there was some disparity between the different populations responding to this survey and a slight difference between the teams and disciplines. These differences were small enough to lend credence to the aggregate results. Overall, the highest scored variable was I feel adequately trained to deal with assaultive patients at 3.96. The lowest scored variable was I feel safe when I float to another unit, at 3.21. CMT is useful/helpful in preparing meà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ registered at a middle value at 3.21. All of the scores ranged between neutral and agree, and appear to have been derived using a summative method. The following tables further illustrate these findings (Colorado Mental Health Institute Safety Survey, 2008): Table 3. Table 4. There were only twenty responses to the open-ended question, What further training do you feel would be beneficial to prepare you to work with the various patient populations at the Colorado Mental Health Institute and the assault risks they present? Some of the responses did not specifically address training, for instance; several respondents said they needed more staff. Other respondents asked for training specific to patient populations, age group, and diagnoses. Several respondents stated that there should be an orientation to any units before floating (i.e. working on unfamiliar units). In addition, some respondents felt that they just needed more training, or more practice. Analysis of the 2008 Safety Survey Considering that this survey uses a 5 point scale the variable indicating 3.21 when employees float might have to do with the reaction of working in a different treatment setting with patients, staff, and conditions with which the employee is unfamiliar. The 3.96 rating ascribed to feeling adequately trained is relatively high, though there is a disparity when contrasted with the 3.21 rating of the perception of crisis management training being useful. The fact that all the readings are neutral or higher would support the contention found in the literature review that some form of crisis management training is more beneficial and preferable to having none at all. The middle score for crisis management training and the tenor of some of the individual comments suggest a performance gap with regards to the training process. This may have had to do with the crisis management training approach, the amount of practice and experience an employee has with using the techniques, or the assessm ent methods utilized to evaluate employee competency. However, these inferences are merely based on conjecture as the reliability and validity of the research instrument was not established. In addition, using only four Likert-items the survey design seems too limited in scope to gather a comprehensive overview of the employees attitudes and opinions. Therefore, the results are subject to interpretation, lacking in specificity and clarity, and cannot be considered as valid and reliable empirical evidence. Data Analysis Methods for the Proposed Survey The data analysis for the proposed survey for this study will begin by examining the surveys for correctness and completeness, and then numerically coding the responses into a database in the PASW-18 software (Predictive Analysis Software) and performing an analysis of descriptive responses. Surveys that are incomplete will be were discarded from the analysis, and the frequency tables and descriptive statistics will display the results relevant to answering the research questions. As described previously, the calculations will exclude the mean, though the mode, median, and range of the score distribution will be presented. A Chi-square test will conducted to determine if a relationship exists between frequencies, although it will not indicate the strength or positive/negative direction of the relationship. This is consistent with standard statistics guidelines for using the non-parametric tests that will be used in this study as opposed to parametric tests; for as Jamieson (2004) adv ises, the appropriate inferential statistics for ordinal data are those employing non-parametric tests, such as chi-squared, Spearmans Rho, or the Mann-Whitney U-test1 because parametric tests require data of interval or ratio level (p. 2113). As the numbers in the survey that will be assigned to Likert-items fall into the ordinal measurement scale, the descriptive statistics will include a mode or median for central tendency and frequencies for variability, and the inferential non-parametric tests will follow Jameisons (2004) recommendations, including Spearman s Rho to detect linear relationships and Kendalls tau-b for any increasing or decreasing relationship between the Likert scale questions. Data Collection Crisis intervention training is mandated for those staff members at the Colorado Mental Health Institute that provide direct care for clients residing in inpatient settings. In addition, those members in the Institutes administration that oversee this care are also involved in biannual trainings. Therefore, the sample population will consist of 210 clinical staff members, with the surveys distributed in the upcoming training review for the clinical staff members at the Institute. Although attendance for this training is mandated for employees, it will be made clear that participation in the survey is voluntary, with the anonymity of the participants made clear to addressing the issues regarding confidentiality. The respondents will be assured that the survey is anonymous and confidential, though they will be given the opportunity to provide information regarding their respective disciplines, years of service, level of education, and gender. Once the data has been collected, the resul ts will be recorded and statistically analyzed using PASW-18 software. Prior to the distribution of the surveys during training review, the purpose and importance of the study will be announced in each of the treatment units team meetings, and posted for all clinical staff members via the Institutes intranet e-mail service. Research Questions/Hypotheses _____ Describes specific research questions and hypotheses (where appropriate) that _____ Are clear and succinct _____ Are congruent with the Statement of Problem _____ Are answerable/testable _____ Correspond to the number of variables of interest _____ Have hypotheses that correspond to research questions _____ Are clearly stated _____ Are open-ended (not yes/no questions) Population and Sample The sampling frame for the survey consists of 210 members of the Institutes direct care staff, whose treatment teams multidisciplinary structure are comprised of management staff, nurses, social workers, psychiatrists, psychologists, therapeutic recreation specialists, occupational therapists and mental health clinicians. Although these disciplines function within a team context, there are differences in terms of power and status, as well as their amount of direct client care. Examples of these differences in station are the administrators, psychologists, and psychiatrists that comprise the upper echelon within the teams, with middle managers functioning as liaisons between the lower ranking team members and those higher up in the organization. The social workers on the team have a middling status with regards to power and prestige; with nurses and mental health clinicians representing the lowest status with the greatest amount of patient contact, though having the least contact with the hospital administration. Although this last factor is interesting from an organizational point of view, it is even more relevant in terms of the study as those staff members having the most direct contact with clients are the most likely to encounter and intervene in violent situations occurring on the inpatient units. Ethical Concerns There are ethical concerns inherent in any form of research study, particularly those involving the use of human subjects. To address these, procedures for protecting confidential and anonymity in data collection, analysis, reporting, and storage need to be developed and described. The researcher must be competent to perform the research procedures in order to reduce the risk of causing harm to human subjects, and the reputation of the sponsoring organization as well as the organization were the study is being conducted (Welman et al., 2005:182). For this proposed study, the researcher has completed the coursework for the Doctoral Program in Organizational Psychology at the University of the Rockies. This course of study has been grounded in the orientation and practice of conducting research, utilizing different kinds of research methodologies, undergoing training relative to conducting legal, ethical, and appropriate research procedures, and applying qualitative and quantitative an alysis in a variety of projects under the tutelage of qualified instructors at the doctoral level of education. There are a number of safeguards implemented by the University the Rockies to ensure that ethical concerns are addressed in an appropriate manner, including a requirement that the student completes two courses related exclusively to proper conduct and methodology in the research process, as well as the ethical research guidelines that need to be understood and followed. Throughout this training, the importance of the researchers work needing to be authentic and built upon his or hers own ideas have been emphasized, citing the use of other peoples ideas and data to avoid plagiarism. In addition, it has been made clear that providing data that is falsified or misleading is inappropriate and unethical. To ensure appropriate ethical standards are followed, student researchers at the University the Rockies are supervised by a committee of three psychologists, one serving as the committee chairman who works closely with the student. Finally, if the committee supports and approves the research proposal, it is reviewed by the Universitys Research Review Board and Institutional Review Board to ensure that the proposed study is original, contributes to the body of work in the field of psychology, and is held to the highest ethical standards. Factors related to the fairness of the proposed survey pose some ethical considerations. It is important that respondents understand the language used in the survey, and efforts have been made to make sure that each item is clear and easily understood. The specificity and clarity of the survey items was tested in the pilot study to assess if the respondents knowledgeable in the subject area interpreted each item in the intended way, and that this intention is made clear. The survey items are of a relatively simple construction reviewing concepts revisited frequently throughout the training process. Efforts have been made to design a survey that meets the validity and reliability standards discussed The possibility of ethical concerns arising for the respondents in this proposed study are reduced secondary to the anonymous and confidential nature of the survey; and that the previously, and the survey will be conducted with the same time parameters and conditions for all participants. voluntary participants being surveyed are employees as opposed to the Institutes clientele. Nevertheless, individuals participating in the survey may question the viability of keeping this information confidential, and worry that an honest and full disclosure of their views and feelings regarding the subject area may negatively impact their status within the organization. Efforts will be made to neutralize this factor by giving the respondents an accurate description of the study, and pointing out the potential benefits for the organization by improving the welfare and safety the Colorado Mental Health Institutes clients, as well as those charged with the responsibility of providing their care. The results of the study will be made available to all members of the Colorado Mental Health Institute, including any results that are associated with researcher error. Instrumentation The survey proposed for this study was designed to gather data based on the proposed research questions, and provide information to make appropriate conclusions and inferences based on empirical data. The instrument was designed to measure each respondents opinions, attitudes, lived experiences regarding the perceived value and effectiveness of the Crisis Prevention Institutes Nonviolent Crisis Intervention Program to manage violence. The attitudinal scale that will be used in the study will be based on a Likert scale, which is often used as a form of summative scale. The design is formatted using a variety of Likert scales with statements that the respondent evaluates by expressing their general level of agreement or disagreement. The scales proposed for this study to assess respondents perceptions of the Crisis Prevention Institutes Nonviolent Crisis Intervention Program effectiveness will use a 5-point Likert design. The survey is anonymous and voluntary with no identifying inform ation, though clarifying information such as gender, years of service, occupation, and years of education will be requested. The Likert-items for the survey targeted three general areas: 1) training objectives and content, 2) method and training context, and 3) usefulness and knowledge transfer. In the first category, 8 Likert-items refer to specific aspects and components in the training process. The second category contains 7 Likert-items that concerns applications of the training outside of the training event, as well as how it integrates with other training initiatives sponsored by the Colorado Mental Health Institute. The third and final category contains 6 Likert-items that are designed to explore employee attitudes regarding the training in terms of its relevance and utilization in real-life situations. Table 4. shows the rating scale that is used consistently throughout the survey, and for each of the three described categories. Table 4. Rating Scale. 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree or Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree The survey has been reviewed by a panel of experts (committee members), who offered recommendations to make the Likert-items more specific and measurable, and then was administered to a screening sample of five people comprised of subjects similar to those who will eventually participate in the survey for this study. The inclusion of the neutral Neither Agree or Disagree category was included to avoid forcing the respondents to choose a response. The numbers of choices on a 5-point scale will present an odd number of choices, allowing respondents to remain neutral. The decision on whether or not to include a neutral category in a survey has been debated, with a decision either way potentially impacting the assessment results (Mogey, 1999). The participants in the screening/pilot sample will be excluded from the final pool of respondents for the survey, which was designed to be completed no more than 10 minutes of time. Some of the considerations in constructing the survey include res pondents possibly being influenced by the way they have answered previous questions, in terms of establishing a pattern that they feel the need to break. In addition, some members may desire to take extreme options but instead temper their responses with more moderate ones. This can be sometimes a challenge in terms of testing in a psychologically oriented environment, where participants are adept at finding and arguing dichotomous and often opposing viewpoints. Internal and External Validity Establishing the reliability and validity of the survey instrument proposed for this research study is fundamental as it is created as opposed to a published instrument. Suskie (1996) describes a questionnaire or survey as reliable when it elicits consistent responses from the participants, and this can be accomplished by providin

Indigo :: essays research papers

Amber Hutchison Post Modern Fiction Indigo February 23, 2000 People are born with passion. The irony is that most people spend all their lives searching for that passion without looking inside that soul to the heart of the passion. The trick to discovering that passion is to find what makes us happy. For Indigo the main character of Sassafras, Cypress and Indigo by her passion lies in the music she creates from her soul while using her violin as her tool. From a modern literary criticism standpoint this passion is seen through her characterization and the symbolic use of the violin. However in peeling back the layers and focusing on this story from a Post – Modern standpoint the reader uncovers deeper issues. There is a sense of discontinuity in the linear structure that leads to a discovery about the cultural issues in this story. Indigo challenges the boundaries of her age and a society that struggles to find a place for her and her soul. That is going under the assumption t hat there is a place. "Indigo did not tell her mother about Mr. Lucas being so evil, nor did she mention that her new fiddle could talk."(Norton 43) With in the first few lines of the story Indigo’s violin begins its transformation from merely and instrument to an extension of her soul. Symbolically Indigo’s violin is representative of her soul. With her violin Indigo pursues the passions of her soul as she struggles to find her place somewhere between childhood and womanhood. Indigo’s mother begs her not to play the violin anymore at night because the neighbors complained about the awful noise. She forces Indigo to take lessons or go somewhere else to play. By rejection her violin her mother rejects the heart and soul of Indigo. Only when she flees to Sister Marie Louise’s shed is she able to play her music and bare her soul to the world. The violin takes on the presence of sin in her life as her mother forbids her to play. It is the forbidden fruit that Indigo longs to taste. Indigo’s character constantly revolves through the turmoil of a young adolescent on the brink of woman hood. "Then she would blush, hurriedly out the fiddle back into the case, the Colored and Romance having got the best of her."(Norton 45) Indigo is not ready to take that final step into womanhood but she is brave enough to sample.

Gender, Genocide and Consequence: Srebrenica Examined

Introduction The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines genocide as â€Å"the deliberate and systematic destruction of a racial, political or cultural group†. Genocide is exactly what happened in the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina during July 1995. Between 6 and 11 July 1995 more than 25,000 Bosnian Muslims, most of them women, children and elderly people living in and around town of Srebrenica, were forced to leave the town (Cemic 2007). In addition, 7,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys were massacred by the Republika Srpska army in and around Srebrenica (Cemic 2007).The Srebrenica genocide was one of the biggest massacres that Europe has seen since World War II (Simic 2008). The women and children who survived it became witnesses and survivors whose testimonies and courage to find out, face and disseminate the truth gave them hero status in Bosnia and around the world (Simic 2008). Every year on July 11, politicians and key players from the international as well local community come to Potocari to pay tribute to all of the victims identified so far and those still missing (Simic 2008).Each anniversary of the genocide attracts more and more people from around the world who want to come and share their compassion and maybe even ‘guilt' for not doing more to prevent this horrible event (Simic 2008). Following Bosnia’s declaration of independence from the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) in March 1992, a civil war broke out in progressive stages between the three ethnic communities that had existed in Bosnia for several centuries (Turns 2007).Although initially internal in nature, this conflict was ‘internationalised’ at various points by the intervention of armed forces from both Serbia and Croatia on the sides of their respective co-ethnic forces (Turns 2007). With the internationally recognised government of the new republic in Muslim hands, nationalistic elements in the Serbian component of the population sta rted fighting against the Bosnian Government’s forces (Turns 2007).Although initially the Croats and Muslims combined forces against the Serbs, subsequent fighting also broke out between Croatian and Government forces (largely over the division of the town of Mostar); the Serbs and Croats also fought against each other (Turns 2007). Both of the non-Muslim nationalist leadership groups had similar aims, namely either outright independence for those parts of Bosnia where their ethnic populations primarily resided or, preferably, union with their o-ethnic neighbouring states: the Republics of Serbia and Croatia (Turns 2007). As this would inevitably entail the dismemberment of the Bosnian State, the Muslim Government fought against both groups (Turns 2007). Srebrenica is a small town in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina that lies about 10 miles from the border with Serbia. While essentially ignoring three years of slaughter, the United Nations Security Council did designate Srebren ica a â€Å"safe area† in which encircled Muslims (now called Bosniaks) could find sanctuary (Lischer 2012).But a few hundred outgunned UN peacekeepers from the Netherlands provided only a veneer of protection which cracked under pressure from the Bosnian Serbs. (Lischer 2012). The result was the largest mass killing in Europe since the Holocaust (Lischer 2012). In summary, this literature review will investigate what happened during the genocide, short term and long term impacts, the geopolitical transformation and the controversies surrounding the infamous July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Discussion The fall of YugoslaviaYugoslavia (which consisted of Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH), Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia) was a peaceful nation when formed after the Second World War, and then suddenly everything began to change. In 1991, following the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the former Yugoslavia began to disinteg rate (Totten 2006). The country degenerated into conflict between the three major groups–Serbs, Muslims, and Croatians–that had lived in peace under Dictator Josip Broz Tito (Totten 2006).The Socialistic Republic of BiH was born after WW II with the creation of the Socialistic Federative Republic of Yugoslavia (Simic 2009). The same year this newly independent state was plunged into almost four years of internal conflict (Simic 2009). Yugoslavia maintained peace during the 40 years Tito ruled, but when he died in 1980 following the Cold War, nationalist and separatist ideologies began to arise and disrupt tranquility within the country (Long 2012).Slobodan Milosevic, formerly Serbia's Communist Party leader, strategically adhered to nationalism and became the ruler of Serbia and the most authoritative dignitary in Yugoslavia by 1989 (Long 2012). However, his forceful attempts to take over the federal government of Yugoslavia and unjust decisions he made out of self-int erest drove Croatia and Slovenia to seek independence in 1991, and Bosnia-Herzegovina followed in 1992 (Long 2012). Even though European community and the United States recognized Bosnia as an independent country, the Muslim, Serb, and Croat groups within Bosnia all began to fight for territory (Long 2012).Although many of the Muslims in Bosnia originally thought the Yugoslav National Army (YNA) would protect them, the fourth largest army in Europe was under the command of Milosevic, whose ultimate at the cost of many non-Serbs' lives, to create a Greater Serbia (Long 2012). The YNA launched many vicious attacks against non-Serb citizens in Bosnia with the help of the Republicka Srpska's (the leading Serb par in Bosnia) Drina Corps (Long 2012).An ugly war ensued, especially between the Serbs and the Bosnians (Long 2012). In 1993, Serb attacks on Bosnian Muslims increased in eastern Bosnia, and the latter fled their homes and villages to seek protection in the nearby town of Srebreni ca (and a 30-square-mile area surrounding it), which had been designated a United Nations-sponsored â€Å"safe area† (Totten 2006). The safe area had been developed as a result of Security Council Resolution 819 on April 16, 1993 (Totten 2006).Subsequently, the UN forged an agreement in which the Muslim troops in the enclave of Srebrenica would disarm, the Serbs would halt their attacks on the enclave, and the UN would oversee and enforce the cease-fire (Totten 2006). While both Serbs and Muslims periodically violated the agreement, the Serb forces were the ones who, over the years, applied ever-increasing pressure on the Muslims in Srebrenica (and on the Dutch Battalion, commonly referred to as â€Å"Dutchbat,† charged with protecting the safe area) by periodically shelling them and preventing humanitarian assistance from entering the enclave (Totten 2006).By July of 1995 thousands of civilians had taken refuge in the city of Srebrenica to escape from Serb attacks in northeastern Bosnia (Long 2012). On July 6, 1995, under the orders of Rodovan Karadzic, president of Republika Srpska the VRS began an offensive attack on Sebrenica by firing mortal shells into the city (Long 2012). As the attacks increased in number and ferocity, NATO authorities discussed the possibility of air strikes against Serb-held areas (Totten 2006).When planes were finally able to perform air strikes, after dropping only two bombs on VRS forces outside of Srebrenica the VRS threatened to kill their Dutch hostages and attack the refugees in an enclave in Srebrenica with mortar shells (Long 2012). NATO responded by immediately ordering a stop to the air strikes (Long 2012). A column of 15,000 weak and underfed Muslim men fled toward Tuzla, a Bosnian government held territory nearly 40 miles away, leaving behind their wives, daughters, young sons, and elderly fathers. (Long 2012).The Serbs were prepared for the Muslim men to flee to Tuzla, and were given orders by Radislav Kr stic, commander of the VRS, to kill every single person in the column; â€Å"You must kill everyone. We don't need anyone alive† said Krstic (Long 2012). Even knowing their escape was a futile attempt, the Muslim men felt they had no other choice but to flee (Long 2012). On 11 July 1995, after they occupied Srebrenica, Bosnian Serb forces executed between 7,000 and 8,000 men (Simic 2009). By the evening of July 11, 1995, Srebrenica was void of a single living Muslim (Long 2012).The genocide in Srebrenica was the largest single act of genocide in Europe in 50 years, or since the Nazi-perpetrated Holocaust (Totten 2006). Court and Controversy On 26 February 2007, one of the longest running and most tortuous pieces of litigation in the history of the International Court of Justice came to a close when a decision on the merits was handed down in the case brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina (‘Bosnia') against Serbia and Montenegro (‘Serbia') in March 1993 (Turns 2007).In 1993 the United Nations Security Council, acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, had established the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (‘ICTY') in order to prosecute persons alleged to have committed serious violations of international humanitarian law–including genocide (15)–anywhere in the territory of the former Yugoslavia; this was largely a response to the atrocities that were being reported from Bosnia in particular (Turns 2007).In its application to the Court, Bosnia requested declarations that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (‘FRY') ‘has breached, and is continuing to breach, its legal obligations' towards Bosnia under a number of international treaties, including the Genocide Convention, the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Additional Protocol I thereto of 1977, the Hague Regulations of 1907, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 (Turns 2007). In April 2001, Serbia filed with the Court an Application forRevision of the 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objections (Turns 2007). This was followed the next month by another document, in which Serbia argued that: (i) it had not been a party to the Statute of the ICJ until its admission to the UN on 1 November 2000; (ii) that it never had been, and still was not, a party to the Genocide Convention; and (iii) that when it had acceded to the Genocide Convention on 8 March 2001, it had entered a reservation to art IX thereof (Turns 2007).The ICJ affirmed it had jurisdiction and found, by thirteen votes to two, that Serbia had not conspired to commit genocide nor had it incited the commission of genocide in violation of its obligations under the Genocide Convention (Cernic 2007). The ICJ also found, by eleven votes to four, that Serbia had not been complicit in genocide (Cernic 2007).However, the ICJ did find that Serbia had violated its obligation under the Genocide Convention to prevent genocide in Srebrenica, and that i t had also violated its obligations under the Genocide Convention by having failed to co-operate fully with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (‘ICTY') (Cernic 2007). The ICJ held that the genocide in Srebrenica was committed by the Republika Srpska army under the command of its VRS Main Staff, which did possess the specific ‘genocidal intent' (Cernic 2007). Can a state commit the crime of genocide?The ICJ held that States can commit the crime of genocide (Cernic 2007). It held that the effect of article I of the Genocide Convention ‘is to prohibit states themselves from committing genocide' which follows from the categorisation of genocide as a crime against international law (Cernic 2007). The ICJ acknowledged the crimes in Srebrenica ‘were committed, at least in part, with the resources which the perpetrators of those acts possessed as a result of the general policy of aid and assistance pursued towards them by the FRY'(Cernic 20 07).The Bosnian Serbs maintained that the graves were filled with Muslim soldiers killed during combat and denied the accusations that a massacre took place (Long 2012). However, on October 29, 1995, reporters from the Christian Science Monitor, during an unauthorized visit, discovered a heap of clothing, shoes, and eyeglasses next to what appeared to be a freshly dug grave in the city of Sahanici (Long 2012). However, there were no signs that a battle took place, and a few canes as well as a crutch were also discovered–evidence that countered the Bosnian Serbs' that the graves contained Muslim combat casualties (Long 2012).Four primary figures emerged as the main conspirators responsible for the Srebrenica massacre: Slobodan Milosevic, the former Yugoslav president; Radovan Karadzic, the former political leader of the Bosnian Serbs; Ratko Mladic, Karadzic's former chief military commander; and Radislav Krstic, former commander of the Drina Corps (Long 2012). The UN court rul ed the Srebrenica massacre a genocide and eventually brought charges against these four individuals, but so far Krstic is the only one who has been convicted (Long 2012). Gender and Genocide While the international community and U. N. eacekeepers looked on, Serb forces separated civilian men from women and killed thousands of men en masse, or hunted them down in the forests (Jones 2002). Realizing the UN would not protect them, around 25,000 refugees, mainly consisting of women, children, and elderly men, attempted to escape to the town of Potocari in hopes of seeking protection in a UN compound within the city (Long 2012). A great many of the men who had sought to flee through the hills to Tuzla were doomed as well (Jones 2002). Around 23,000 women and children were deported over an estimated period of 30 hours to safe Muslim territories (Long 2012).The remaining males (around 1,700) were held in trucks and warehouses to be supposedly interrogated for war crimes (Long 2012). In wha t was a well-planned succession of events, the victims were transported from building to building and held for long periods of time without food or water before they were finally executed (Long 2012). Some men were killed individually or in small groups, but the majority of the murders took place in mass numbers (Long 2012). In one of the mass murders, between 1,000 and 1,500 men were crammed into a pitch-black warehouse (Long 2012).Soldiers began throwing grenades into the warehouse and shooting their machine guns into the building (Long 2012). Any men who tried to escape from the building were immediately gunned down by the soldiers (Long 2012). Many hundreds more were massacred at a football field near Nova Kasaba, the worst killing ground of the entire five-day slaughter (Jones 2002). While at some sites there was grave digging machinery, at the soccer field selected men were forced to dig graves and watch others be shot into those (Long 2012). Eventually, these men and were sho t into their own graves (Long 2012).When a bulldozer finally did arrive, around 400 men were thrown into a grave and buried alive (Long 2012). After all was said and done, between the days of July 11-16, 1995, over 8,000 Muslim men were killed in Bosnia (Long 2012). Srebrenica is a textbook case of gendercide (Simic 2009). While all males were executed, females were forcibly expelled leading to the creation of an ethnically cleansed area (Simic 2009). By killing all males who were capable of ‘holding a gun', the Serbian forces eliminated the direct threat of young potential future fighters, thus reducing the strength of the rival community (Simic 2009).Prior to the war, Srebrenica was a traditional town where males were the prime breadwinners and the head of households (Simic 2009). The gendercide in Srebrenica disrupted the gender cast of BiH society by leaving almost 40% of the internally displaced population with female headed-households (Simic 2009). Left without their hus bands, women suddenly needed skills and education to be able to take part in a job market in BiH where almost 40% of people are still considered as unemployed (Simic 2009).Thus, the elimination of the male population had tremendous social, economic and psychological consequences on the women, leaving them to be sole breadwinners while coping with traumatic experiences they had endured and searching for the bones of their sons and husbands (Simic 2009). However, despite the challenges they faced these women joined together and left their private sphere of mourning to go into the public domain demanding a series of actions to be taken by local and international governments (Simic 2009).In doing so, they transformed their experience as victims into an activism that has attracted international attention and respect (Simic 2009). Aftermath Following the massacre, a handful of survivors from various massacre sites came forward and offered their testimonies, describing the brutal and horri fic murders they witnessed (Long 2012). Finally, almost a year after the massacre, in July of 1996, forensic experts performed exhumations of some of the mass grave sites without the permission of Serb authorities (Long 2012).As time drew on, more grave sites were discovered and examined, and more bodies were accounted for, Investigators found many bodies in smaller graves in areas farther from Srebrenica (Long 2012). The bodies were easily linked to Srebrenica, as several licenses and photographs of Muslims who had been in Srebrenica were found in the graves (Long 2012). Even in the large graves with fewer bodies, forensic investigations found significant evidence suggesting that most of the victims were not killed during combat (Long 2012).Also, prosthetic limbs, canes, and crutches found in the graves suggested that many of the victims were severely handicapped and would not have been able to fight in combat (Long 2012). Extensive forensic investigations of the Srebrenica massacr e sites have so far turned up some 3,000 bodies but only a few have been successfully identified (Jones 2002). The forensics teams who worked on the Srebrenica site gathered vital experience in their exhumation of the graves, and were able to employ their skills anew in the Kosovo gendercide four years later (Jones 2002).The memory of Srebrenica's men has been kept alive by their womenfolk, even though the women survivors of the Srebrenica genocide still live scattered as displaced persons in BiH (Simic 2009). In Tuzla where the majority of them fled during the genocide, these women established the association of the ‘Mothers of Srebrenica' (Simic 2009). The association has an important voice in BiH, demands a complete investigation of the massacre, the opening of mass graves and the identification and burial of their sons, husbands and fathers who vanished in July 1995 (Simic 2009).Although the ‘Mothers' only registered as association of citizens in 1999, their protests and persuasive efforts to bring about justice started back in 1996, when they stormed the Red Cross offices to protest a stalled investigation on the fate of their missing men (Simic 2009). The group's list of primary demands reads as follows: †¢The full facts of Srebrenica should be revealed and publicised. †¢All graves should be exhumed and bodies identified without delay. †¢Any survivors of Srebrenica held prisoner in Republika Srpska [Bosnian Serb territories] or the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia should be released immediately. The people of Srebrenica should be enabled to return to their homes. †¢There should be a full & open international investigation into the failure of the UN to protect the Safe Area of Srebrenica. †¢All indicted and suspected war criminals, including Radovan Karadzic, Ratko Mladic and Slobodan Milosevic, and all those complicit with genocide, should be arrested and brought to trial (Jones 2002). In spring 2000, General Radislav K rstic, â€Å"the highest-ranking Bosnian Serb commander before the UN War Crimes tribunal in The Hague,† stood trial for the genocidal atrocities at Srebrenica (Jones 2002).In August 2001, Krstic was convicted and sentenced to 46 years in prison (Jones 2002). Conclusions In conclusion, the war between the Bosnian Muslims and the Bosnian Serbs was a turning point for the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Not only did it impact the citizens of the country, but it also impacted the structure and the politics of it. This began with the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia which consisted of the countries now known as Bosnia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Montenegro. After Bosnia’s independence declaration the country was plunged into conflict between the three major groups; Serbs, Muslims and Croatians.An ugly war ensued between the Muslims and Serbs that lasted nearly 4 years. By July of 1995, thousands of civilians had taken refuge in the town of Srebrenica w hich was deemed a safe zone. In my opinion, the UN troops that were supposed to be protecting the country did a very poor job. The Serbian army began a vicious attack on the city and began the execution of thousands of Muslim men. Over 8000 men had been killed from July 11-16, 1995. Mass killings were performed in warehouses, schools and even soccer fields. Men were shot, bombarded with grenades and buried alive in some cases.Years later in 2007, the International Court of Justice came to a decision on the merits handed down in the case brought by Bosnia against Serbia where Bosnia accused Serbia of violating international humanitarian law, including genocide. The question of whether or not a country could commit the act of genocide was brought up; the ICJ decided that it was possible. I, however, do not agree with this statement. I believe that in order for a country to commit genocide, every single citizen would have to take part in it and that was not the case.Of course the four men accused should be found guilty of genocide, but as for the country, I do not believe so. Serbia argued against the claims, stating that the bodies that were buried were Muslim soldiers and combat casualties and not victims of genocide. However, evidence of clothing, shoes, eyeglasses, canes and prosthetic limbs were found. Men who needed canes or prosthetic limbs would not be allowed to fight in combat and therefore the graves could not have been filled with soldiers. The massacre was ruled a genocide and charges have been made against the Serbs in charge of the attacks.In the future, I will conduct more research on this case to find a more in depth examination of both parties and what they had argued. Following the massacre, survivors came forward and offered testimonies, describing the events that happened. An exhumation of the grave sites began which helped gives names to bodies found in the graves. The skills learned through this process were later used in other genocides. T he memory of the victims of Srebrenica has been kept alive by its women. They have started organizations such as Mothers of Srebrenica and changed the gender cast of society.With the men gone, women were forced into the role of head of household leaving social, psychological and economic consequences on the women. As devastating as the massacre was, I believe that the consequences have had an overall positive impact on Bosnian society. Women were now seen as members of society who could work the same jobs as men, and the Mothers have accomplished a lot for the citizens, for example ensuring that the facts of Srebrenica were available to the public. Further research could be conducted on the association to see more of what they had accomplished and how they did it.In my opinion, the Mothers of Srebrenica are inspirational and prove that no matter how bad an event may be, something positive can always come out of it. What happened during the Bosnian war was heartbreaking and terrible; however, focus should be put on the good that came out of it, and the lessons that can be learned from the events that happened. References: Cemic, J. (2007). Case concerning the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), judgment of 26 February 2007, General List No. 91. Australian International Law Journal.Retrieved from http://go. galegroup. com/ps/i. do? id=GALE%7CA191955759&v=2. 1&u=ko_k12hs_d68&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w Jones, A. (2002). Case Study: The Srebrenica Massacre, July 1995. Gendercide Watch. Retrieved from http://www. gendercide. org/case_srebrenica. html Li, D. (2000). Anatomy of a Balkan Massacre. Harvard International Review. Retrieved fromhttp://go. galegroup. com/ps/i. do? id=GALE%7CA67318464&v=2. 1&u=ko_k12hs_d68&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w Lischer, S. (2012). The Scars of Genocide. American Scholar. Retrieved fromhttp://go. galegroup. com/ps/i. do? id=GALE%7CA302117166&v=2. 1&u=ko_k1 2hs_d68&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w Long, L. (2006). The Srebrenica

Child Development Models Essay

This essay will describe the different explanations for children’s behaviour, examining the Psychodynamic, Behaviourist and Social Learning perspectives. It will also evaluate each of these theories and make reference to their practical application. In doing so, the essay will set out how parents, child psychologists, social workers and teachers can aim to understand children’s behaviour.  As Haggerty (2006) states, â€Å"The theory supporting psychodynamic therapy originated in and is informed by psychoanalytic theory.† The psychoanalytic approach to therapy was developed by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist. Freud’s model proposed that an individual has three elements to their psychological self: the ego, superego and id. The id is the most primitive, consisting of largely unconscious  biological impulses. The ego uses reality and its  consequences to modify the behaviour being urged by the  id. The superego judges actions as right or wrong based  on the person’s internal value system.  (Strickland ed., 2001, p.637)  According to Freud, children progress through various psychosexual stages of development. He claimed that, at particular points in the process, a single body part is particularly sensitive to erotic stimulation (Stevenson, 1996). The first stage begins at birth and continues until approximately 1 year old. It is classified as The Oral Stage because the mouth and lips are the main focus, displaying biting, sucking and chewing behaviour. The Anal Stage comes next and usually occurs between 1 and 3 years old. Toilet training encourages the child to enjoy expelling faeces. At this point the id will be satisfied by this instantaneous pleasure and will be in conflict with the ego and superego, which are concerned with controlling bodily functions to satisfy social expectations and practicality.  The Phallic Stage occurs between approximately 3 and 5 years old and contains one of Freud’s most controversial theories, the Oedipus complex (or Electra complex in females). His theory states that the child becomes focused upon the genital area and experiences turmoil in the form of an unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and eliminate the same-sexed parent. What Freud termed the Latency Period comes next. He believed that sexual drive lay dormant due to repressed impulses and desires. At this stage, children focus upon non-sexual activities and form same-sex friendships.  At approximately 12 years old, a child faces puberty and enters what Freud classes as The Genital Stage. The focus returns to the genitals but this time in relation to others. There is now an interest in relationships and exploring sexuality. When a child is unable to resolve the conflicts that occur at any of these stages, fixation can occur. â€Å"If needs are not met in a satisfactory way or if the individual’s conscience or superego cannot deal with impulses and drives to love and to hate, then complex character traits emerge† (Errington and Murdin, 2006). For example, oral fixation may result in an adult displaying pessimism, sarcasm or gullibility, whilst phallic fixation may result in recklessness or fear of commitment. Freud, like many who begin a movement, now receives much criticism. One area of weakness is the limited scope of his research, as his therapy work mainly focused upon upper middle class women. Another popularly criticised aspect of Freud’s work is the emphasis on sexuality as, in his view, everything seems to stem from expression or repression of the sex drive (Boeree, 2006). Despite criticism, Freud’s methods underpin the commonly held belief that childhood experiences are hugely important to personality development. In practical terms, those working with children today place great importance on ensuring that a childhood contains opportunities to develop, to learn the difference between right and wrong, and to learn to appropriately act upon or repress urges.  Behaviour therapy is defined as â€Å"A collection of psychotherapeutic techniques aimed at altering maladaptive or unwanted behaviour patterns, especially through the application of principles of conditioning or learning.† (Colman, 2006). The main influencers of this theory were Pavlov, Watson and Skinner. Ivan Pavlov, later to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his research into the digestive system, observed that â€Å"†¦dogs would salivate upon seeing their keeper, apparently in anticipation of being fed.† (Strickland ed., 2001, p.478). Pavlov extended his experiment and rang a bell immediately before food was served to the dogs. Eventually, the dogs would salivate upon the bell ringing, even if no food was then served. This led Pavlov to develop an understanding of conditioned responses and unconditioned reflexes.